GS Paper 1
Prelims Fact
Carcasses of Olive Ridley turtles are washing ashore along the Visakhapatnam coast, likely due to marine pollution and trawling activities during the breeding season.
- The turtles come close to shore to lay eggs, making them vulnerable to accidental capture by fishing vessels.
- The Andhra Pradesh Forest Department has set up hatcheries to aid conservation efforts.
- Despite education initiatives, the issue persists, highlighting the need for better protection during the breeding period.
Olive Ridley Turtles:
- Smallest sea turtle: Olive Ridleys are the smallest sea turtles, with adults reaching about 2 feet in length and weighing up to 100 pounds.
- Conservation status: Listed as ‘Vulnerable’ by the IUCN.
- Most abundant: They are the most numerous sea turtle species globally, though still considered vulnerable.
- Unique nesting: Olive Ridleys are famous for their “arribadas,” mass nesting events where thousands of females come ashore simultaneously.
- Wide distribution: They inhabit tropical and subtropical waters of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans.
- Diet: Olive Ridleys are omnivores, feeding on jellyfish, crabs, snails, shrimp, and algae.
- Threats: These turtles face dangers such as entanglement in fishing gear, habitat destruction, and climate change.
UPSC Prelims PYQ : 2018
Ques : Consider the following statements about the National Wildlife Action Plan (NWAP) 2017-2031:
- It focuses on protecting marine ecosystems and species.
- It emphasizes mitigating human-wildlife conflict.
- Olive Ridley Turtles are a priority under marine conservation efforts.
Which of the statements is/are correct?
- a) 1 and 2 only
- b) 2 and 3 only
- c) 1 and 3 only
- d) 1, 2, and 3
Ans: d)
GS PAPER 2
Prelims Fact
The Jalvahak scheme aims to boost cargo movement via inland waterways, providing incentives for transport on National Waterways 1, 2, and 16.
- The scheme offers a 35% reimbursement of operating expenses to encourage businesses to use waterway transport.
Launch of Jalvahak Scheme
- The scheme was launched to promote cargo movement via inland waterways on National Waterways 1, 2, and 16.
- It offers financial incentives to encourage cargo transport through these waterways.
- The scheme is valid for an initial period of three years.
Objective of the Scheme
- The aim is to decongest road and railways by promoting more economical, ecologically friendly, and efficient waterway transport.
- The scheme provides an opportunity for trade sectors to explore cargo movement via waterways.
Incentives and Benefits
- The scheme offers a reimbursement of up to 35% of the total operating expenses for eligible cargo vessels.
- It encourages cargo owners to hire government-owned or operated vessels to enhance business prospects.
Operational Details
- The scheme features fixed scheduled sailing services for cargo vessels from Kolkata, operating along specific stretches of NW-1 and NW-2.
- It includes services like the Kolkata-Patna-Varanasi-Patna-Kolkata route and Kolkata-Pandu-Guwahati route.
UPSC Prelims Practice Question
Ques : Consider the following statements regarding the Jalvahak Scheme:
- The Jalvahak Scheme aims to provide drinking water to rural households through water tankers in water-scarce areas.
- It is implemented by the Ministry of Jal Shakti as part of the Jal Jeevan Mission.
- The scheme also promotes sustainable groundwater recharge techniques in urban areas.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- A) 1 only
- B) 1 and 2 only
- C) 2 and 3 only
- D) 1, 2, and 3
Ans: b)
GS Paper 3
Science and Technology
The article discusses a new method to study black holes by analyzing light echoes, which can reveal a black hole’s mass and spin.
- This technique uses gravitational lensing and long-baseline interferometry.
- The study enhances understanding of black holes’ influence on their surroundings.
Importance of Black Holes
- Black holes have a strong pull that affects stars and galaxies.
- Studying black holes helps scientists understand how galaxies and stars are formed and evolve.
New Way to Study Black Holes
- A new study led by George Wong from Princeton University presents a method to measure black holes.
- This method uses the effect of black holes on light to understand their properties.
What Are Light Echoes?
- When light passes near a black hole, it bends due to its strong gravity.
- This causes light to reach Earth at different times, creating light echoes.
- The second light beam is an echo of the first one.
- These echoes help scientists measure the mass and spin of black holes.
Challenges in Measuring Black Holes
- Observing black holes is difficult because of the hot gases and radiation around them.
- Light echoes are helpful because they provide clearer signals, making measurements easier.
Gravitational Lensing and Interferometry
- Black holes bend light through their gravity, which is called gravitational lensing.
- The study suggests using long-baseline interferometry, where two telescopes (one on Earth and one in space) detect light echoes to create a special signal.
Studying Black Holes in M87 and the Milky Way
- The study focuses on supermassive black holes in the M87 galaxy and the Milky Way, which have bright rings of light at 230 GHz.
- Scientists want to study these rings to understand the black hole’s shadow.
Simulating Light Echoes Around M87
- The research team tested their method by simulating light around the M87 black hole.
- This helped them estimate the black hole’s mass and angular momentum.
Theory of Relativity and Light Echoes
- Einstein’s theory of relativity predicts that light echoes happen with all types of light, not just one frequency.
- Testing light echoes at different frequencies will help confirm the new method and the theory of relativity.
UPSC Mains PYQ : 2020
Ques : “What are the key differences between a Neutron Star and a Black Hole? Discuss the significance of the recent findings about Black Holes.” (150 Words /10 marks)
GS Paper 4
Environment – Environmental pollution and degradation
COP29 in Baku approved standards for establishing an international carbon market, emphasizing its potential to reduce global emissions.
- Carbon markets enable trading carbon credits to internalize environmental costs and curb pollution.
- However, challenges like governmental manipulation and corporate misuse persist.
COP29 and Carbon Markets
- COP29, held in Baku, Azerbaijan, has approved standards to establish an international carbon market, potentially operational by next year.
- This step highlights the role of carbon markets in curbing carbon emissions and addressing climate change challenges.
What is a Carbon Market?
- A carbon market allows buying and selling of rights to emit carbon dioxide.
- Governments issue carbon credits, each equivalent to 1,000 kilograms of carbon dioxide, to limit emissions.
- Entities without carbon credits are prohibited from emitting carbon.
- The market price for carbon credits is determined by supply and demand dynamics.
- Carbon offsets involve businesses purchasing credits from environmental organizations that commit to carbon reduction activities like tree planting.
Benefits of Carbon Markets
- Carbon markets address the problem of externalities, where the environmental cost of economic activities is not internalized in market prices.
- They impose financial costs on firms for carbon emissions, encouraging them to reduce pollution.
- Standardized accounting frameworks and technological advancements have enhanced corporations’ ability to monitor emissions and report accurately.
- Voluntary reporting systems like the Carbon Disclosure Project are preferred by corporations, while they oppose government interventions.
- Firms advocate free trading of carbon credits, which they claim ensures efficient allocation of resources.
Challenges of Carbon Markets
- Governments may manipulate the supply of carbon credits, either oversupplying them to reduce prices or allowing firms to bypass regulations.
- Firms purchasing carbon offsets may engage in virtue signaling, with limited actual impact on reducing emissions.
- Critics question governments’ ability to determine the optimal supply of carbon credits, as political interests may lead to restrictive or overly lenient policies.
- Restrictive policies may hinder economic growth, while lax regulations may fail to achieve meaningful emission reductions.
The Way Forward
- The effectiveness of carbon markets depends on transparent governance, strict enforcement, and incentivized participation by firms and governments.
- Ensuring accountability in carbon offset mechanisms and maintaining optimal credit supply are critical for achieving environmental goals.
- Collaboration between governments, corporations, and international bodies is essential to balance economic growth and climate commitments.
UPSC Mains PYQ : 2014
Ques : Should the pursuit of carbon credit and the clean development mechanism set up under UNFCCC be maintained even though there has been a massive slide in the value of carbon credit? Discuss with respect to India’s energy needs for economic growth. (200 words/12.5m)
In News : Henderson Doctrine
In a recent case, the Supreme Court explained Henderson doctrine, a natural corollary of the Indian doctrine of constructive Res-judicata.
About Henderson Doctrine:
- Propounded in the English case of Henderson versus Henderson, 1843, the doctrine suggests that all the issues arising in the litigation out of the same subject matter must be addressed in a single suit.
- The doctrine bars relitigating issues that could or should have been raised in prior proceedings.
- It held that where a given matter becomes the subject of litigation and the adjudication of a court of competent jurisdiction, the parties so litigating are required to bring forward their whole case.
- It was further held that the principle of res judicata applies not only to points upon which the Court was called upon by the parties to adjudicate and pronounce a judgement but to every possible or probable point or issue that properly belonged to the subject of litigation and the parties ought to have brought forward at the time.
- It ensures that litigants are not subjected to repetitive and vexatious legal challenges.
- At its core, the principle stipulates that all claims and issues that could and should have been raised in an earlier proceeding are barred from being raised in subsequent litigation, except in exceptional circumstances.
What is the Principle of res judicata?
- Res judicata literally means ‘the thing has been judged”. It is also known as claim preclusion.
- The principle of res judicata applies when a litigant attempts to file a subsequent lawsuit on the same matter after having received a judgmentin a previous case involving the same parties.
- It is a judicial concept, which means that the issue before the court has already been decided by another court, between the same parties, and the courts do not allow a petition to be filedin the same court or in another court.
- Therefore, the court will dismiss the casebefore it as being useless.
- Res Judicata as a concept is applicable both in Civil as well as Criminal legal system.
GS Paper 5
Editorial Analysis
Context :
- The practice of one candidate contesting from multiple constituencies (OCMC) in elections, though legally permissible, leads to financial burdens, frequent by-elections, and voter dissatisfaction.
- This undermines democratic principles while favoring leader-centric politics.
- Debates around banning OCMC focus on electoral reforms for accountability and transparency in India’s parliamentary democracy.
Background of One Candidate, Multiple Constituencies (OCMC)
- The Constitution of India mandates regular elections every five years for Legislative Assemblies and the Lok Sabha, with the Election Commission (ECI) regulating the conduct of elections.
- Until 1996, there was no limit on the number of constituencies a candidate could contest, leading to frequent by-elections when candidates vacated seats.
- In 1996, the Representation of the People Act, 1951, was amended to limit candidates to contesting from a maximum of two constituencies. Despite this, the practice persists.
Challenges Posed by OCMC
- Financial Burden
- Frequent by-elections increase costs for taxpayers. For instance, the 2014 general elections cost ₹3,870 crore, which rose to ₹6,931 crore in 2024, adjusted for inflation.
- By-elections due to candidates vacating seats after winning can cost around ₹130 crore if 10 candidates vacate seats.
- Massive expenditure by political parties, estimated at ₹1,35,000 crore for the 2024 elections, largely funded by unaccounted money, undermines financial transparency.
- Electoral Imbalance
- By-elections tend to favour ruling parties due to resource mobilization and patronage, creating a non-level playing field.
- This trend weakens opposition parties and disrupts democratic balance.
- Disproportionate Financial Pressure
- By-elections impose additional financial burdens on already defeated candidates and their parties, forcing them to reinvest resources.
- Undermining Democratic Principles
- Contesting from multiple constituencies prioritizes a leader’s interests over public welfare, serving as a safety net for candidates rather than addressing people’s needs.
- It reflects the dominance of leader-centric or family-based political parties.
- Voter Confusion and Discontent
- Vacating constituencies after elections leads to voter dissatisfaction, as seen in Wayanad, Kerala, where voter turnout dropped from 72.92% in the general election to 64.24% in the bypoll.
- This practice may violate Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution by disregarding the voters’ choice of representation.
Advantages of OCMC
- Provides a safety net for candidates in competitive constituencies.
- Ensures continuity for leader-centric political parties if their leader loses an election, as seen with Mamata Banerjee in 2021 and Pushkar Singh Dhami in 2022.
International Practices
- Pakistan: Allows candidates to contest unlimited constituencies; they must vacate all but one. In 2018, a former Prime Minister contested five seats.
- Bangladesh: Earlier allowed contesting up to five constituencies; now limits it to three since 2008.
- United Kingdom: Banned OCMC since 1983 to ensure accountability.
- European Democracies: Most have phased out OCMC to promote clear representation and reduce electoral complexities.
Recommendations for Reform
- Ban OCMC
- Amend Section 33(7) of the Representation of the People Act, 1951, to prohibit candidates from contesting multiple constituencies.
- The ECI (2004) and the Law Commission (2015) have both recommended this.
- Impose Cost Recovery
- Candidates vacating a seat could be required to bear the full cost of by-elections, as proposed by the ECI in 2004.
- Delay By-Elections
- Amend Section 151A of the Representation of the People Act, 1951, to allow by-elections after one year of vacancy, enabling informed voter decisions and fair electoral preparation.
Conclusion
- OCMC contributes to inefficiency and voter dissatisfaction, contradicting democratic principles of accountability.
- While significant reforms require political consensus, enforcing “one candidate, one constituency” aligns with the democratic ideal of “one person, one vote” and strengthens electoral integrity.